Toxin Research

Ochratoxin A

Ochratoxins are produced by several species of the fungal
genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. These fungi are ubiquitous and
the potential for the contamination of foodstuffs and animal feed
is widespread. Ochratoxin formation by Aspergillus species appears to be limited
to conditions of high humidity and temperature, whereas at least
some Penicillium species may produce ochratoxin at temperatures as
low as 5 °C.

The highest incidences of ochratoxin A contamination have been
found in cereals, and to a lesser extent in some beans (coffee,
soya, cocoa). Ochratoxin A is considered a human carcinogen and is of special interest as it can be accumulated in the meat of animals. Thus meat and meat products can be contaminated with this toxin. Exposure to ochratoxins through diet can have can acute toxicity to mammalian kidneys, and may be carcinogenic.

Ochratoxin A is known to be a nephrotoxin, a toxin having a specific destructive effect on kidney tissue as defined by Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, 3 ed. © 2007 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved, and have been link to Balkan endemic nephropathy.

Research Material from;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochratoxin_A

http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Ochratoxin

http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm

Aflatoxins

Aflatoxin, a mycotoxin, is a toxic metabolite produced by a number of species of the Aspergillus species. Aflatoxins are also known to be carcinogenic and severely toxic to both humans and animals. Moulds (Aspergillus species) producing aflatoxins are present worldwide but are more common in the tropical regions where climate is usually warm with rainfalls. With high levels of moisture and an favourable temperature of about 30ºC, moulds can produce aflatoxins that will contaminate various kinds of food products including cereals such as wheat, maize and sorghum, tree nuts, oilseeds and milk.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflatoxin
http://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/aflatoxin.asp
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html

The presence of flour, being used as an ingredient in curry puffs which is a derivative from wheat, may be contaminated with aflatoxins. Therefore, as a precautionary measure, aflatoxins should be tested for when receiving flour raw ingredient.

If foods contaminated with aflatoxins are consumed, it can cause aflatoxicosis with various forms of symptoms, ranging from oedema to possibly even death.

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html

Prevention of contamination of aflatoxins into foods is to simply store ingredients in dry cool environment, if water activity is reduced, aflatoxin production will cease.

Ergot Alkaloids

Ergot is simply a name for the parasitic fungus, Claviceps, which infects grains (wheat, barley, rye, oats, etc). Ergot fungus thrives in warm and humid conditions and as Ergot thrives, it produces alkaloids which contaminate the grains.

Ergot intoxication causes Ergotism whereby consumers who consumed a high amount of ergot alkaloids contaminated foods will suffer severe burning sensations on their limbs due to vasoconstriction, an effect of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system. Sometimes, vasoconstriction may lead to gangrene or lost of limbs due to lack of blood circulation.
1. http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=l7Wpmj0AK88C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=ergot+citrinin&source=web&ots=Nv1fCbeCXv&sig=i2F5nRy6Al-92iEfrQn7IjfKHxM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA426,M1
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergot
3. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm

Trichothecene
Trichothecene is a mycotoxin produced by a large number of fungus species; Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma and Trichothecium just to name a few. It is known that Trichothecene can contaminate cereal (wheat, sorghum, rye and oats) in damp indoor environment.

Trichothecene have an immunosuppressive effect on humans and most animals. Once trichothecene poisoning set it, the first symptoms exhibited would be uneasiness and drowsiness. As time passes, rashes will appear, followed by haemorrhagic fever; impairing brain activity. Psychological conditions may also develop in extreme conditions. If patient recovers, the immune system remains weakened, susceptible to infection.

Prevention of contamination of trichothecene into foods is to remove and fungus found on the wheat. Also, store grains in a dry, cool environment. UV light treatment can also be use as a preventive measure since trichothecene degrades quickly under UV light exposure.

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichothecene
2. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/medaspec/Ch-34electrv699.pdf
3. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm


Zearalenone (ZEA)
also known as RAL and F-2 mycotoxin, is a potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some Fusarium species.

Several Fusarium species produce toxic substances of considerable concern to livestock and poultry producers: namely, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and zearalenone

Zearalenone is the primary toxin causing infertility, abortion or other breeding problems, especially in swine.

Zearalenone is heat-stable and is found worldwide in a number of cereal crops, such as maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice, and sorghum (Kuiper-Goodman et al., 1987; Tanaka et al., 1988a) and also in bread.

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zearalenone
2. http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Zearalenone