Monday, July 14, 2008
Toxin Research
Ochratoxins are produced by several species of the fungal
genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. These fungi are ubiquitous and
the potential for the contamination of foodstuffs and animal feed
is widespread. Ochratoxin formation by Aspergillus species appears to be limited
to conditions of high humidity and temperature, whereas at least
some Penicillium species may produce ochratoxin at temperatures as
low as 5 °C.
The highest incidences of ochratoxin A contamination have been
found in cereals, and to a lesser extent in some beans (coffee,
soya, cocoa). Ochratoxin A is considered a human carcinogen and is of special interest as it can be accumulated in the meat of animals. Thus meat and meat products can be contaminated with this toxin. Exposure to ochratoxins through diet can have can acute toxicity to mammalian kidneys, and may be carcinogenic.
Ochratoxin A is known to be a nephrotoxin, a toxin having a specific destructive effect on kidney tissue as defined by Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, 3 ed. © 2007 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved, and have been link to Balkan endemic nephropathy.
Research Material from;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochratoxin_A
http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Ochratoxin
http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm
Aflatoxins
Aflatoxin, a mycotoxin, is a toxic metabolite produced by a number of species of the Aspergillus species. Aflatoxins are also known to be carcinogenic and severely toxic to both humans and animals. Moulds (Aspergillus species) producing aflatoxins are present worldwide but are more common in the tropical regions where climate is usually warm with rainfalls. With high levels of moisture and an favourable temperature of about 30ºC, moulds can produce aflatoxins that will contaminate various kinds of food products including cereals such as wheat, maize and sorghum, tree nuts, oilseeds and milk.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflatoxin
http://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/aflatoxin.asp
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html
The presence of flour, being used as an ingredient in curry puffs which is a derivative from wheat, may be contaminated with aflatoxins. Therefore, as a precautionary measure, aflatoxins should be tested for when receiving flour raw ingredient.
If foods contaminated with aflatoxins are consumed, it can cause aflatoxicosis with various forms of symptoms, ranging from oedema to possibly even death.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html
Prevention of contamination of aflatoxins into foods is to simply store ingredients in dry cool environment, if water activity is reduced, aflatoxin production will cease.
Ergot Alkaloids
Ergot is simply a name for the parasitic fungus, Claviceps, which infects grains (wheat, barley, rye, oats, etc). Ergot fungus thrives in warm and humid conditions and as Ergot thrives, it produces alkaloids which contaminate the grains.
Ergot intoxication causes Ergotism whereby consumers who consumed a high amount of ergot alkaloids contaminated foods will suffer severe burning sensations on their limbs due to vasoconstriction, an effect of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system. Sometimes, vasoconstriction may lead to gangrene or lost of limbs due to lack of blood circulation.
1. http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=l7Wpmj0AK88C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=ergot+citrinin&source=web&ots=Nv1fCbeCXv&sig=i2F5nRy6Al-92iEfrQn7IjfKHxM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA426,M1
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergot
3. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm
Trichothecene
Trichothecene is a mycotoxin produced by a large number of fungus species; Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma and Trichothecium just to name a few. It is known that Trichothecene can contaminate cereal (wheat, sorghum, rye and oats) in damp indoor environment.
Trichothecene have an immunosuppressive effect on humans and most animals. Once trichothecene poisoning set it, the first symptoms exhibited would be uneasiness and drowsiness. As time passes, rashes will appear, followed by haemorrhagic fever; impairing brain activity. Psychological conditions may also develop in extreme conditions. If patient recovers, the immune system remains weakened, susceptible to infection.
Prevention of contamination of trichothecene into foods is to remove and fungus found on the wheat. Also, store grains in a dry, cool environment. UV light treatment can also be use as a preventive measure since trichothecene degrades quickly under UV light exposure.
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichothecene
2. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/medaspec/Ch-34electrv699.pdf
3. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm
Zearalenone (ZEA)
also known as RAL and F-2 mycotoxin, is a potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some Fusarium species.
Several Fusarium species produce toxic substances of considerable concern to livestock and poultry producers: namely, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and zearalenone
Zearalenone is the primary toxin causing infertility, abortion or other breeding problems, especially in swine.
Zearalenone is heat-stable and is found worldwide in a number of cereal crops, such as maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice, and sorghum (Kuiper-Goodman et al., 1987; Tanaka et al., 1988a) and also in bread.
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zearalenone
2. http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Zearalenone
Sunday, July 13, 2008
GM Foods - Benefits and Negative Issues
Benefits of GM Foods
- Pest Resistant
Pesticides are expensive and pollutes the environment, furthermore, consumers don't wish to eat something treated with chemical. By having crops genetically modified with Bt, it will produce a 'natural' insecticide which will not cause pollution. - Herbicide Tolerant
Without being genetically modified, the use of herbicides to kill weeds will also kill crops, this can cause farmers to lose a number of their crops. - Disease Resistance
Being disease resistance, crops can withstand intervention from bacteria, fungus and moulds. - Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance
As the world population grows and more land is utilized for housing instead of food production, farmers will need to grow crops in locations previously unsuited for plant cultivation. Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or high salt content in soil and groundwater will help people to grow crops in formerly inhospitable place - Nutrition
In countries where food are sparse and food not meet nutritional requirements, genetic engineering allows scientist to alleviate the amount of vitamins, minerals and other important nutrient for growth and development. Genetic Modification can also help to disspell hunger woes in 3rd world countries.
Paraphrased article from: http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php
Other Benefits of GM Foods:
Negative Issues
Environmental Hazard
i) Unintended harm to other organisms
e.g. B.t. corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterfly caterpillars. Monarch caterpillars consume milkweed plants, not corn, but the fear is that if pollen from B.t. corn is blown by the wind onto milkweed plants in neighboring fields, the caterpillars could eat the pollen and perish.
ii) Reduced effectiveness of pesticides
e.g. Just as some populations of mosquitoes developed resistance to the now-banned pesticide DDT, many people are concerned that insects will become resistant to B.t. or other crops that have been genetically-modified to produce their own pesticides.
iii)Gene transfer to non-target species
e.g. Another concern is that crop plants engineered for herbicide tolerance and weeds will cross-breed, resulting in the transfer of the herbicide resistance genes from the crops into the weeds. These "superweeds" would then be herbicide tolerant as well.
Effects on Humans
i) Allerginicity
ii) Unknown effects
Ethics
i) Violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values
ii) Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
iii) Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa
iv) Stress for animal
Labelling
i) Not mandatory in some countries (e.g., United States)
ii) Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labeling attempts
Products that needs Labelling:
1. If the product is a genetically modified organism (GMO):
e.g. GM Potato
2. If the product contains genetically modified microorganisms
e.g. Cheese with GM moulds
3. If the product was directly made from genetically modified organisms, whether or not ....they can be found in the final product
e.g. Breakfast cereal made from GM maize
4. If the product contains additives or flavors that were directly made from genetically ....modified organisms. As with foods, all additives and flavors require labeling if the ....direct production line stems from genetically modified plants and plant products
e.g. Lecithin from GM soy
GM Foods Research Materials from:
http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php
http://www.gmo-watch.com/pages/facts.asp
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml
GM Foods - Introduction
Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods made from genetically modified organisms (GMO) that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food )
How GM Food produced?
Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.[1] Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Genetic engineering endeavours have found some success in improving crop technology, the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in Chinese hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.
Since a protein sequence is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, novel versions of that protein can be produced by changing the DNA sequence of the gene.
Genetic Modification Process:
There are several ways through which genetic engineering is accomplished. Essentially, the process has four main steps:
1. Isolation of the genes of interest
2. Insertion of the genes into a transfer vector
3. Transformation of cells of organism to be modified
4. Separation of the genetically modified organism (GMO) from those that have not been successfully modified.
Isolation is achieved by identifying the gene of interest that the scientist wishes to insert into the organism, usually using existing knowledge of the various functions of genes. DNA information can be obtained from cDNA or gDNA libraries, and amplified using PCR techniques. If necessary, i.e. for insertion of eukaryotic genomic DNA into prokaryotes, further modification may be carried out such as removal of introns or ligating prokaryotic promoters.
Insertion of a gene into a vector such as a plasmid can be done once the gene of interest is isolated. Other vectors can also be used, such as viral vectors, and non-prokaryotic ones such as liposomes, or even direct insertion using gene guns. Restriction enzymes and ligases are of great use in this crucial step if it is being inserted into prokaryotic or viral vectors. Daniel Nathans, Werner Arber and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their isolation of restriction endonucleases.
Once the vector is obtained, it can be used to transform the target organism. Depending on the vector used, it can be complex or simple. For example, using raw DNA with DNA guns is a fairly straightforward process but with low success rates, where the DNA is coated onto particles such as gold and fired directly into a cell. Other more complex methods, such as bacterial transformation or using viruses as vectors have higher success rates.
After transformation, the GMO can be isolated from those that have failed to take up the vector in various ways.
( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering )
What types of food that are Genetically Modified?
A table taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food tells us the few named food sources that have been Genitically Modified.
Food Product Recall, HACCP and CCP's
A product recall is an effective method of removing or correcting violative products that may represent a health hazard to the consumer or user. It is an action taken by a manufacturer, distributor, or importer to carry out their responsibility to protect the public health and well-being.
The 3 classes of recall are:
1. Class I is a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a violative product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death.
2. Class II is a situation in which the use of, or exposure to, a violative product may cause temporary adverse health consequences or where the probability of serious adverse health consequences is remote.
3. Class III is a situation in which the use of, or exposure to, a violative product is not likely to cause any adverse health consequences.
Recall Procedure:
1) Recall Notification with Information
a. The name of the recalled product and, where applicable, the identifying model designation, serial number, code, lot number and any other means of identification.
b. The total quantity of the recalled product originally in his possession.
c. The total quantity of the recalled product that had been distributed up to the time of the recall.
d. Area of the distribution of the recalled product by province and, if exported, by country.
e. The quantity of the recalled product still in his possession.
f. The reason for initiating the recall.
2) Health Hazard Evaluation and Recall Classification.
Before initiating a recall, the firm will normally gather, correlate and evaluate all known information on the nature and extent of the reputed health risk.
The following factors will be taken into factor before a recall is being carried out:
a. Whether any disease or injuries have already occurred from the use of the product.
b. Assessment of hazard to various segments of the population, e.g., children, surgical patients, etc., who are expected to be exposed to the product being considered, with particular attention paid to the hazard to those individuals who may be at greatest risk.
c. Assessment of the degree of seriousness of the health hazard to which the population at risk would be exposed.
d. Assessment of the likelihood of occurrence of the hazard.
e. Assessment of the consequences (immediate or long-range) of occurrence of the hazard.
3) Recall Strategy
A recall strategy that takes into account the following factors will be developed by the recalling firm to suit the individual circumstances of the particular recall:
a. Results of health hazard evaluation.
b. Ease in identifying the product.
c. Degree to which the product's deficiency is obvious to the consumer or user.
d.Degree to which the product remains unused in the marketplace.
e. Continued availability of essential products.
4) Elements of Recall Strategy
a. Depth of recall - Depending on the product's degree of hazard and extent of distribution, the recall strategy will specify the level in the distribution chain to which the recall is to extend, as follows:
- Consumer or user level, which may vary with product, including any intermediate wholesale or retail level; or
- Retail level, including any intermediate wholesale level; or
- Wholesale level.
b. Recall Communications
b.1 Generic
A recalling firm is responsible for promptly notifying each of its affected accounts about the recall. The format, content, and extent of a recall communication should be commensurate with the hazard of the product being recalled and the strategy developed for that recall. In general terms, the purpose of a recall communication is to convey:
i) That the product in question is subject to a recall;
ii) That further distribution or use of any remaining product should cease immediately;
iii) Where applicable and required as part of the recall strategy, that the direct account should in turn notify its accounts that received the product about the recall;
iv)Instructions regarding what to do with the product.
b.2 Implementation and Labelling
As determined by the recall strategy, a recall communication can be accomplished by telephone, telex, telegrams, or special delivery letters conspicuously marked, preferably in bold red type, on the letter and envelope: "DRUG (or FOOD, BIOLOGIC, etc.) RECALL". The letter and the envelope should also be marked: "URGENT" for Class I and Class II recalls. Telephone calls or other personal contacts should ordinarily be confirmed by one of the other above methods and/or documented in an appropriate manner.
b.3 Content
A recall communication should be written in accordance with the following guidelines:
i) Be brief and to the point;
ii) Identify clearly the product, size, lot number(s), code(s), or serial number(s) and any other pertinent descriptive information to enable accurate and immediate identification of the product;
iii) Explain concisely the reason for the recall and the hazard involved;
iv) Provide specific instructions on what should be done with respect to the recalled products; and
v) Provide a ready means for the recipient of the communication to report to the recalling firm whether it has any of the product, e.g., by allowing the recipient to place a collect call to the recalling firm.
The recall communication should not contain irrelevant qualifications, promotional materials, or any other statement that may detract from the message. Where necessary, follow-up communications should be sent to those who fail to respond to the initial recall communication.
b.4 Responsibility of Receipient of the Recall being communicated.
Consignees that receive a recall communication should immediately carry out the instructions set forth by the recalling firm and, where necessary, extend the recall to its consignees in accordance with paragraphs (b.3) and (b.4) of this section.
c. Public Warning - The purpose of a public warning is to alert the public that a product being recalled presents a serious hazard to health. It is reserved for urgent situations (Class I and occasionally Class II Recalls) where other means for preventing use of the recalled product appear inadequate. The Assistant Deputy Minister decides whether a public recall announcement is mandatory and whether the Health Protection Branch will issue the warning.
The recall strategy will specify the type of public warning, for example:
i) General public warning through the general news media, either national or local as appropriate, or
ii) Public warning through specialized news media, e.g., professional, trade or ethnic press, or to specific segments of the population such as physicians, hospitals, etc.
d. Effectiveness checks - The purpose of effectiveness checks is to verify that all consignees at the recall depth specified by the strategy have received notification about the recall and have taken appropriate action. The method for contacting consignees may be accomplished by personal visits, telephone calls, letters, or a combination thereof. The recalling firm is responsible for conducting effectiveness checks. The firm's recall strategy will specify the method(s) to be used for and the level of effectiveness checks that will be conducted by the recalling firm as follows.
Level A - 100 percent of the total number of consignees to be contacted;
Level B - Some percentage of the total number of consignees to be contacted, which percentage is to be determined on a case-by-case basis, but is greater than 10 percent and less than 100 percent of the total number of consignees
Level C - 10 percent or less of the total number of consignees to be contacted, which percentage is to be determined on a case-by-case basis; or
Level D - No effectiveness checks.
Food Recall research materials from:
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/compli-conform/recall-retrait/recall_proc-marche_retrait-eng.php
http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=pk6Cjm5cYyMC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=Product+Food+Recall+Procedure&source=web&ots=LweULE5lhx&sig=ffrbhobnD7ZYDqPgFc5is-0g9Pc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result
http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/animalproducts/seafood/guidelines/listeria/lsteri19.htm
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Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a tool used and implemented in various kind of industries that offers risk and management system. HACCP can be establish with the use of the 7 principles of HACCP.
7 Principles of HACCP
The seven principles of HACCP have been universally accepted by government agencies, trade associations and the food industry around the world:
1. Analyze hazards. Potential hazards associated with a food and measures to control those hazards are identified. The hazard could be biological, such as a microbe; chemical, such as a toxin; or physical, such as ground glass or metal fragments.
2. Identify critical control points. These are points in a food's production--from its raw state through processing and shipping to consumption by the consumer--at which the potential hazard can be controlled or eliminated. Examples are cooking, cooling, packaging, and metal detection.
3. Establish preventive measures with critical limits for each control point. For a cooked food, for example, this might include setting the minimum cooking temperature and time required to ensure the elimination of any harmful microbes.
4. Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points. Such procedures might include determining how and by whom cooking time and temperature should be monitored.
5. Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring shows that a critical limit has not been met--for example, reprocessing or disposing of food if the minimum cooking temperature is not met.
6. Establish procedures to verify that the system is working properly--for example, testing time-and-temperature recording devices to verify that a cooking unit is working properly.
7. Establish effective recordkeeping to document the HACCP system. This would include records of hazards and their control methods, the monitoring of safety requirements and action taken to correct potential problems. Each of these principles must be backed by sound scientific knowledge: for example, published microbiological studies on time and temperature factors for controlling foodborne pathogens.
7 Principles of HACCP are from http://www.afdo.org/afdo/HACCP/Seven-HACCP-Principles.cfm
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Throughout package 1, the use of the principles 1 to 6 should be reflected in out HACCP template and documents.
Application of Principles 1 to 6 into the package.
1. Analyze hazards. Potential hazards associated with a food and measures to control those hazards are identified.
An example extracted from our HACCP.
In the Hazard Analysis table above, the listing of hazard at every process steps (#) are being mentioned, together with the type of hazard, whether chemical, biological or pysical. A hazard number is also given for identification purposes (H#)
With this, Principle 1 has been fulfilled.
2. Identify critical control points. These are points in a food's production--from its raw state through processing and shipping to consumption by the consumer--at which the potential hazard can be controlled or eliminated.
In the CCP Decision Tree above, by answering Questions 1 to 5, we are able to tell whether or not the process is a CCP. For example in our product process flow, Process 3 which is Sifting of Raw Ingredients is a CCP because there will NOT be a subsequent step or action eliminate or reduce the hazard to an acceptable level.
Hence, Principle 2 have been fulfilled.
3. Establish preventive measures with critical limits for each control point.
On the critical limits spreadsheet, we state the critical limits for each identified CCP together with a monitoring procedure to prevent any risk from occuring.
Now, principle 3 have been achived.
4. Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points.
The corrective action table established will prevent deviation and the resposibility of process owners are stated for each CCP named.
Thus, Principle 4 is met.
5. Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring shows that a critical limit has not been met.
Principle 5 is met. Referring to the picture on Principle 4, a corrective action has been establish. This procedure will be use if deviation occurs from the process step.
6. Establish procedures to verify that the system is working properly--for example, testing time-and-temperature recording devices to verify that a cooking unit is working properly.
Since this is just a project and we are not actually going to verify whether process system is working or not, so another alternative is to come up with a control procedure whereby what test/quality checks to be done with stated frequency.
With these evidences, Principles 1 to 6 has been met.
Process Flow for White Buns
Package 1: Product Specifications
Product Name: Plain White Buns
General Description: Domed-squared buns, fully baked, with light brown crust colour and white crumb. Bun is soft and elastic (resilient) with fine cells on crumb.
Ingredients: Wheat flour, Water, Sugar, Shortening, Salt, Yeast, Dough Improvers, Calcium Propionate
Additives/Preservatives: Calcium Propionate
Physical Properties
Shape: A baked product with square base and a domed crown.
Weight: 45-50g per piece
Height: 4.0-4.5 cm
Length: 6.7-7.0 cm
Colour: Crust – Light Brown
Crumb – White
Microbiological
Specification: less than 100,000 cfu/g for TPC @ 37ºC for 48 hours
Packaging:
Material: LDPE – Low Density Polyethylene
Quantity: 10 buns per bag, 6 bags per tray
Date Coding: Use By
Storage Conditions: Ambient/Room Temperature
Animal Products: No raw material used in this formulation contains any product of animal origin.
Intended uses: Plain white buns to be sold in supermarkets, provision shops, etc. for public consumption.
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Given the template, a product specification was generated.
While at work, I looked out for the things that is needed to be in the Product Specification template for example the shape,weight, lengnth, etc. The ingredients can be found on most nutritional labelling of white bread/buns.
Microbiological Specifications for bread were retrieved from Singapore Sales of Food Acts.